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T h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r i s r e l a t e d t o t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a t e i n t h e e v e n t s o f 1 9 8 9 a n d t o d a y . B u t w h a t i s t h e r a i s o n d t r e o f a s t a t e ? C a n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s t a t e s t i l l h e l p u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r e s e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e w o r l d ? T h e m o d e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e f a c e s a n u m b e r o f c h a l l e n g e s , e x a c e r b a t e d b y i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l s o v e r e i g n t y . N a t i o n s t a t e s h a v e b e e n b u i l t b e c a u s e t h e y h a d c o m m o n e n e m i e s , n o w t h e r e a r e o n l y c o m m o n f r i e n d s , t h e r e f o r e t h e i d e a o f a c o m m o n p o l i t i c a l u n i t y m i g h t n o t m a k e s e n s e a n y l o n g e r . T h e e v e n t s i n 1 9 8 9 h a v e s h o w n t h e t r i u m p h o f t h e s t a t e . E v e r y p o l i t i c a l u n i t o f t h e c o m m u n i s t b l o c w i s h e d t o b e c o m e a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e . T o d a y t h o s e p r o u d s t a t e s i n t e g r a t e m o r e a n d m o r e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s . H o w s h o u l d t h e s t a t e s k e e p t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y a n d e n s u r e t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r s a t t h e s a m e t i m e ? T h e c h a l l e n g e i s t h a t o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e i s t h e d e s i r e t o p r e s e r v e t h e u n i q u e r o l e o f t h e s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s , a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e r e i s a n e e d t o l i m i t t h a t r o l e i n o r d e r t o s t a b i l i z e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s y s t e m a n d i m p r o v e t h e e c o n o m i c e f f i c i e n c y o f e a c h s t a t e a n d o f E u r o p e a s a w h o l e . T h i s t h e m e i s i n t e n s i v e l y d e b a t e d i n p o l i t i c a l a n d l e g a l s c i e n c e s u n d e r t h e k e y w o r d s s t a t e h o o d i n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o r t h e p r i n c i p l e o f o p e n s t a t e h o o d . T h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f t h i s p a p e r w i l l d i s c u s s t h e n o t i o n s o f s t a t e , d e m o c r a c y a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h e n , t h e e v e n t s o f 1 9 8 9 i n C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e ( C E E ) a n d t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s w i l l b e a n a l y s e d i n a s e c o n d c h a p t e r . T h e c h a l l e n g e i s t o f i n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d e m o c r a c y a n d s t a t e o f l a w d u r i n g t h e s e r e v o l u t i o n s . T h e t h i r d c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . A n d t h e p a p e r w i l l e n d u p w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a t e .
S t a t e , d e m o c r a c y a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n
F r o m t h e t i m e o f N i c c o l o M a c h i a v e l l i ( 1 4 6 9 - 1 5 2 7 ) a n d J e a n B o d i n ( 1 5 2 9 - 1 5 9 6 ) , t h r o u g h t h e t h i n k i n g o f T h o m a s H o b b e s ( 1 5 8 8 - 1 6 7 9 ) , J o h n L o c k e ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 7 0 4 ) a n d I m m a n u e l K a n t ( 1 7 2 9 - 1 8 0 4 ) , a n d u n t i l a l m o s t r e c e n t l y t h e s t a t e w a s d e f i n e d a s h a v i n g t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o r t h e K o m p e t e n z - K o m p e t e n z o n a d e m o c r a t i c b a s i s . T h e m a g i c o f a n a t i o n s h o u l d b e i t s s o v e r e i g n t y . B u t t h i s i s n o t a l l . A n a l y s i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m o d e r n f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t y , M a x W e b e r e m p h a s i s e s t h r e e e l e m e n t s c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f a c o l l e c t i v i t y o f p e o p l e : 1 ) a t e r r i t o r i a l s p a c e ; 2 ) t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d v i r t u a l m o n o p o l y o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e ; 3 ) t h e w i d e s c o p e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y s s o c i a l a c t i o n b e y o n d t h a t o f t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f c o m m o n e c o n o m i c n e e d s , o r o f o t h e r s p e c i a l i s e d f u n c t i o n s ( W e b e r , 1 9 1 4 i n : C a m i c e t a l . , 2 0 0 5 ) . I n t h i s c o n t e x t i t w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o g o b a c k t o F e r d i n a n d T n n i e s d e f i n i t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y ( G e m e i n s c h a f t ) a n d s o c i e t y ( G e s e l l s c h a f t ) , w h i c h h a v e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s : A l l k i n d s o f s o c i a l c o e x i s t e n c e t h a t a r e f a m i l i a r , c o m f o r t a b l e a n d e x c l u s i v e a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s b e l o n g i n g t o G e m e i n s c h a f t & . I n G e m e i n s c h a f t w e a r e u n i t e d f r o m t h e m o m e n t o f o u r b i r t h w i t h o u r o w n f o l k f o r b e t t e r o r f o r w o r s e . W e g o i n t o G e s e l l s c h a f t a s i f i n t o a f o r e i g n l a n d ( T n n i e s , 1 8 8 7 / 2 0 0 1 : 1 8 ) . B u t t h e l i f e i n a p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t y l o o k s m o s t l y l i k e a G e s e l l s c h a f t . T h i s p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t y i s , h o w e v e r , n o t a f o r e i g n l a n d a n d i t s m e m b e r s a r e n o t s t r a n g e r s ; t h e y l i v e i n a s o l i d a r i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d h a v e c o m m o n v a l u e s a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . P e u p e u t h e s t a t e i t s e l f h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m i n g i n t o a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s o c i e t y ( F o r s t h o f f , 1 9 7 1 ) . A s t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o n c e p t o f d e m o c r a c y , w e c a n g o e v e n f u r t h e r i n t h e h i s t o r y a n d s t a r t w i t h A t h e n s d e m o c r a c y d u r i n g t h e A g e o f P e r i c l e s ( 4 6 1 - 4 2 9 B C ) a n d t h e n m o v e t o M a g n a C a r t a , t h e B r i t i s h g l o r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n w i t h H a b e a s C o r p u s r e f o r m i n 1 6 8 9 , o v e r t h e A m e r i c a n B i l l o f R i g h t s f r o m 1 7 8 9 , c o n t i n u i n g w i t h S p i n o z a , R o u s s e a u , M o n t e s q u i e u , t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , T o c q u e v i l l e u n t i l t h e h u m a n r i g h t s s y s t e m o f t o d a y . T h e r e a r e e n o u g h s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e C E E .
T h e n e x t i m p o r t a n t i s s u e i s c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h e m o m e n t o f c o n s t i t u t i o n - m a k i n g i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f W e s t e r n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t e s . D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e s s , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s b e c o m e c i t i z e n s , w h o r e c o g n i s e e a c h o t h e r a s e q u a l s . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d o c u m e n t c o n t a i n s t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r c o m m o n l i f e , a s w e l l a s t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n a n d l i m i t a t i o n o f s t a t e p o w e r . T h e r e f o r e i t i s n o t s o e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s m o d e l o f t h e W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s c a n w i t h o u t p r o b l e m s f u n c t i o n i n s o c i e t i e s t h a t n e v e r h a v e h a d a d e v e l o p e d s t a t e h o o d . C o n s t i t u t i o n s a s n a t i o n s m i g h t b e p e r c e i v e d a s p l e b i s c i t e d e t o u s l e s j o u r s ( R e n a n , 1 8 8 2 ) . I n p o s t U S S R c o u n t r i e s , i t l o o k s l i k e c o n s t i t u t i o n s a r e n e g o t i a t e d t r a n s i t i o n s . T h e C E E i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t b u r e a u c r a t i s m a n d e l i t e d o m i n a t i o n , n a m e d s o c i a l i s m w i t h a h u m a n f a c e , h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y t h e d e m o s , r e l y i n g o n t h e e t h n o s .
D u r i n g c e n t u r i e s t h e p o s t - W e s t p h a l i a n p e a c e o r d e r w a s e v e n n o t p u t i n t o q u e s t i o n . B u t a l r e a d y i n 1 9 6 3 , C a r l S c h m i t t s p o k e a b o u t t h e e n d o f t h e s t a t e h o o d e r a , s i n c e a s t a t e i s b o r n , i s l i v i n g a n d t h e n i s d y i n g ( S c h m i t t , 1 9 6 3 ) . T h e f o r m o f t h e s t a t e d o e s n o t t r a n s f o r m , t h e s t a t e s i m p l y d i s a p p e a r s a t t h e e n d . T o d a y t h e r e i s e v e n a f a r e w e l l l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e s t a t e ( V e s t i n g , 2 0 0 1 ) , w h i c h i s e v e n m o r e d e v e l o p i n g i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s u i g e n e r i s c h a r a c t e r o f t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n ( E U ) a n d t h e n e w p o s t - m o d e r n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r . M a n y a s k w h e t h e r t h e s t a t e , a s a m o d e l o f p o l i t i c a l u n i t y , a s t h e m o n o p o l i s t o f s o v e r e i g n t y s t i l l c a n r e g u l a t e a p o s t - m o d e r n , i n d i v i d u a l i s e d a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s o c i e t y ( P r e u s s , 2 0 0 2 ) .
T h e e v e n t s o f 1 9 8 9 a n e w k i n d o f r e v o l u t i o n s ?
A l t h o u g h t h e s t a t e i s p u t i n t o q u e s t i o n , i t t r i u m p h e d i n 1 9 8 9 . D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e s , m i l l i o n s o f c i t i z e n s i n E u r o p e a n d e l s e w h e r e h a v e b e e n w i t n e s s i n g t h e p r o c e s s e s o f d e m o c r a t i s a t i o n a n d d e m o c r a t i c c o n s o l i d a t i o n . T h e e n d o f t h e c o m m u n i s t r e g i m e w a s n o t p r e d i c t e d b y t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , i t w a s j u s t a n i d i o s y n c r a t i c g u e s s w o r k b y n o n - a c a d e m i c s . I t w a s a c t u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t i t , b e c a u s e : S t a t e s o c i a l i s m & i s a s y s t e m t h a t d o e s n o t g e n e r a t e k n o w l e d g e , l e a s t o f a l l p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e , a b o u t i n d i c a t o r s o f i t s o w n m a l f u n c t i o n i n g ( E l s t e r e t a l . 1 9 9 8 : 2 ) . M i c h a e l W a l z e r d e s c r i b e d t h i s e v i d e n c e l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g : O n e r e a d s t h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s t o f i n d o u t w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g , P r a v d a o n l y t o f i n d o u t w h a t t h e S o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s w a n t t h e i r p e o p l e t o t h i n k a b o u t w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g . S o b o t h g r e a t p o w e r s k n o w t h a t t h e w o r l d k n o w s m o r e o r l e s s w e l l , w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g ( W a l z e r , 1 9 8 6 : 2 3 1 ) . T h e A u t u m n o f t h e p e o p l e ( P r z e w o r s k i i n : E l s t e r e t a l . 1 9 9 8 : 2 1 ) c a n b e s e e n a s a f a i l u r e o f p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , a n a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s u p p o s e d l y e q u i p p e d b u t a c t u a l l y u n a b l e t o p r e d i c t s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e s c i e n c e o f m a i n s t r e a m e c o n o m i c s c e l e b r a t e s t h e t r i u m p h o f i t s w i s d o m t h a t s t a t e s o c i a l i s m c o u l d n o t h a v e w o r k e d i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . W h a t w a s e x a n t e d e e m e d a v i r t u a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y b y o n e a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e i s h e l d e x p o s t t o b e a v i r t u a l n e c e s s i t y b y t h e o t h e r o n e . T h e a c a d e m i c s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s i n 1 9 8 9 h a d t h e d i f f i c u l t c h a l l e n g e o f f i n d i n g o u t t h e r i g h t h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r n o t j u s t t o e s t a b l i s h , b u t a l s o t o m a i n t a i n a d e q u a t e d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e s .
T h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y e v e n t s o f 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 1 i n C E E , w h i c h r e s u l t e d w i t h t h e f a l l o f t h e B e r l i n W a l l , t h e c o l l a p s e o r t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e U S S R a n d t h e s o c i a l i s m e p o c h , s t a r t e d a l o n g e r a n d d r a m a t i c p r o c e s s i n t h e h i s t o r y a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s o f E u r o p e a n s t a t e s , a s o n e c o u l d e v e r t h i n k . T h e f a i l e d c o u p d t a t i n M o s c o w i n A u g u s t 1 9 9 1 c o n d u c t e d t o t h e r a p i d d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e S o v i e t U n i o n . 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 1 w a s a p e r i o d o f s o v e r e i g n t y p a r a d e s i n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , w h e n U S S R R e p u b l i c s , A u t o n o m o u s R e p u b l i c s a n d A u t o n o m o u s O b l a s t i d e c l a r e d s o v e r e i g n t y e n m a s s e . M a n y c h a n g e d t h e i r n a m e s a n d u n i l a t e r a l l y d e c l a r e d i n d e p e n d e n c e . W i t h t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n i m p o r t a n t g e o p o l i t i c a l c e n t r e d i s a p p e a r e d a n d m o r e t h a n t e n n e w s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s a p p e a r e d . S i t u a t e d b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n d A s i a , b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d I s l a m , b e t w e e n L a t i n , S l a v i c a n d T u r k i s h n a t i o n s , t h e y b e c a m e a l l p a r t o f r e g i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h a r e v e r y d i v e r s e a s f a r a s t h e s c o p e s a r e c o n c e r n e d .
1 9 8 9 e x p e r i e n c e d a h u g e a n d d e e p t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f g o v e r n a n c e , o f s o c i e t y a n d e v e n o f i d e o l o g i e s a n d c u l t u r e . S i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s h a p p e n e d i n t h e m e n t a l m a p s o f s o c i a l a c t o r s a n d i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t h a d t o r e g u l a t e a n d e n a b l e t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s . T h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e o l d s y s t e m h a s i n v o l v e d r a p i d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s ( l i k e B a l t i c s t a t e s ) , a s w e l l a s i n t e n s e a n d s o m e t i m e s v i o l e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l t e n s i o n s ( l i k e T r a n s n i s t r i a , A b h a s i a , e t c . ) .
T h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e g e o p o l i t i c a l d i c t a t o r s h i p o f t h e c o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s i g n i f i e d t h e e n d o f a b i p o l a r o r d e r , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e i t b r o u g h t t h e c h a n c e a n d t h e t h r e a t s o f a m u l t i p o l a r b a l a n c e o f p o w e r s c o n s t e l l a t i o n . T h e g e o p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n E u r o p e c h a n g e d p r o f o u n d l y a n d i t s r e s u l t s a r e u n k n o w n a t t h e m o m e n t . T h e g e o p o l i t i c s d i l e m m a i s p r e s e n t a t a l l t h e l e v e l s o f t h e E u r o p e a n l i f e , s u c h a s t h e s t a t e s p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e s .
1 9 8 9 w a s r e v o l u t i o n a r y f r o m t h e g e o p o l i t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e r e w e r e m a n y r e v o l u t i o n s u n t i l t h e n a n d e a c h o f t h e m h a s l e d t o m a s s i v e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a l o r d e r w i t h a n o t h e r , e i t h e r b y o u t r i g h t s u b s t i t u t i o n o r t h r o u g h t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s . O n e c o u l d m a k e a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e e v e n t s o f 1 9 8 9 a n d t h e r e v o l u t i o n s o f 1 8 4 8 - 1 8 4 9 , w h e n a g r e a t u p s u r g e o f l i b e r a l a n d d e m o c r a t i c f e e l i n g t o p p l e d g o v e r n m e n t s i n P a r i s , R o m e , V e n i c e , B e r l i n , D r e s d e n , V i e n n a , B u d a p e s t , e t c . I f w e s e e t h e r e v o l u t i o n s i n 1 9 8 9 a s r e l a t e d t o d e m o c r a c y , c o n s t i t u t i o n , c i t i z e n s h i p , t h e r u l e o f l a w , t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f a p l u r a l i s t i c c i v i l s o c i e t y , t h e n t h e y l o o k v e r y m u c h l i k e t h e E n g l i s h ( 1 6 8 8 ) a n d t h e A m e r i c a n ( 1 7 7 6 ) r e v o l u t i o n s ( K u m a r i n : A u e r , 2 0 0 4 ) . T i m o f e i B o r d a c h e v a d d s t h a t E u r o p e h a s a l r e a d y w i t n e s s e d t h r e e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 1 , e a c h l a s t i n g a b o u t 2 5 - 3 0 y e a r s . T h e f i r s t o n e w a s t h e T h i r t y Y e a r s W a r ( 1 6 1 8 - 1 6 4 8 ) , w h i c h e n d e d u p w i t h a T r e a t y o n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s t a t e s o v e r e i g n t y a n d n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n i n i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f a s t a t e . T h e s e c o n d o n e i s t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n ( 1 7 8 9 - 1 8 1 5 ) , w h i c h m a d e t h e p e o p l e s p e a k a n d a c t , a n d t h u s r e a f f i r m e d t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e s t a t e s o v e r e i g n t y . A n d t h e t h i r d i s t h e t r a g e d y o f 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 4 5 , w h i c h c r e a t e d a n e w b a l a n c e o f p o w e r s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f U S A a n d U S S R ( B o r d a c h e v , 2 0 0 7 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e r e v o l u t i o n s i n 1 9 8 9 d o n o t e a s i l y f i t i n t o a n y p r e c o n c e i v e d n o t i o n o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e . W h i l e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n m a r k s t h e b i r t h o f m o d e r n i t y , t h e 1 9 8 9 c o n s e r v a t i v e o r s e l f - l i m i t i n g r e v o l u t i o n s b r i n g E u r o p e t o m a t u r i t y . A u e r c l a i m s t h a t t h e y a r e a n t i - r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e v o l u t i o n s , s i n c e t h e y r e t u r n t o a n e a r l i e r s t a t e o f a f f a i r s ( A u e r , 2 0 0 4 ) . A n e w o r d e r h a s b e e n b u i l t w i t h o u t a t o t a l r u p t u r e w i t h t h e p a s t a n d t h i s i s t h e r e m a r k a b l e l e g a c y o f 1 9 8 9 : " I t i s t h e g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e C e n t r a l a n d E a s t E u r o p e a n s t r u g g l e f o r l e g a l i t y i n t h e m i d s t o f r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t , e v e n w i t h o u t i n h e r i t e d r e p u b l i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e n e w c a n b e b u i l t w i t h o u t t o t a l r u p t u r e w i t h t h e p a s t " ( A r a t o , 2 0 0 0 : 1 4 ) . T h u s , t h e 1 9 8 9 r e v o l u t i o n s w i t h t h e m o t t o : t h e r e t u r n t o E u r o p e i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e 1 7 8 9 R e v o l u t i o n . A l l t h e p r e s e n t e d c a s e s r e s u l t e d w i t h t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e u n i q u e r o l e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s a s t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l a c t o r s i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . H e r e a g a i n t h e s t a t e p r o v e d t o b e p o w e r f u l .
T h e r e v o l u t i o n s o f 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 1 a r e o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d a s c r e a t i v e d e s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c f r a m e w o r k s . T h e y w e r e n o t a s d e s t r u c t i v e a s t h e p r e v i o u s r e v o l u t i o n s ; t h e y w e r e m o s t l y p e a c e f u l i n f a c t , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p e r i p h e r y s u c h a s t h e W e s t e r n B a l k a n s a n d s o m e s t a t e s o f t h e f o r m e r U S S R . T h e b l o o d y c a s e s w e r e t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y s e n t e n c e d o n p a r t o f t h e o l d l e a d e r s h i p b y a m i l i t a r y C o u r t i n R o m a n i a i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 9 a n d t h e k i l l i n g o f a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r o f W h i t e H o u s e o c